• May 18, 2025

The Great Samarkand Chronicles

Samarkand: Unraveling the Ancient Origins Behind a Legendary Silk Road Name

Samarkand is home to a wide array of scientific, educational, and cultural institutions. The city boasts numerous architectural and historical monuments, many of which are included on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

The name “Samarkand” is thought to have ancient roots that trace back to the Sogdian term Smʼrknδh, composed of the words asmara (“stone” or “rock”) and kand (“fort” or “city”). Throughout antiquity, the city also appeared in historical records as Maracanda. Some traditional accounts suggest that “Samarkand” could derive from the Turkic expression Semiz Kent, signifying a “rich” or “fertile settlement.” Supporting this interpretation, medieval Chinese sources described Samarkand as Si-mi-se-kan, translating to “fertile city.” Such perspectives were reinforced by respected scholars like Al-Biruni, while chroniclers such as the Armenian Sumbat likewise referred to it as a “fat” or “abundant” city. Later, the Spanish envoy to Timur’s court, Ruy González de Clavijo, recorded a variant of the city’s name as Simeskint, or “prosperous settlement.”

Perspectives from Abu Tahirkhodja Samarkandi

A renowned 19th-century Samarkand-based historian and scholar, Abu Tahirkhodja Samarkandi, contributed several theories in his Persian work Samaria on how the city’s name evolved:

  1. A Founding Figure Named Samar: One account mentions that a figure named Samar once settled on the territory now occupied by the city, gradually attracting people from nearby areas. Over time, the settlement expanded and took on the name Samarkent in his honor. With changing linguistic influences, particularly after the Arab conquests in Central Asia, the name ultimately transformed into “Samarkand.”

  2. The Tunneling Conquest: Another explanation involves a khan called Samar Bakir, who is said to have captured the city by tunneling beneath its defensive walls. Following this daring act, the settlement came to be known as “Samar Kozdi,” meaning “Samar dug” or “the tunnel of Samar,” a phrase rooted in Turkic terminology.

  3. The Influence of a Turkic Tribe: A similar narrative recounts how a khan named Samar established a new settlement on these lands. A Turkic tribe called Kand migrated there, and after the arrival of Arab forces, the combined elements of Samar and Kand produced the name “Samarkand.”

  4. Destruction and Renaming: Another version claims that a malik from Yemen, named Samar, tore down the city’s fortifications. As Arab influence spread, the name eventually took its well-known form, “Samarkand.”

  5. A City by the Spring: A fifth perspective centers on a local spring called Samar, around which people gradually formed a community. As this community developed into a fortified town, it naturally adopted the name “Samarkand,” essentially “the city of the spring.”

These rich and varied accounts highlight the city’s ancient, multicultural heritage. Over centuries, Samarkand’s name has reflected its evolution from a small settlement by a spring or under a single leader’s influence, into a vibrant, prosperous metropolis at the heart of Central Asia’s historical and cultural crossroads. With its layered history, the name “Samarkand” symbolizes more than just a place—it represents a fusion of peoples, languages, and traditions that contributed to one of the world’s most enduring cities.

Reconstruction of the cityscape of Afrasiab, Samarkand

Ancient Beginnings

The earliest incarnation of what would become Samarkand took shape at the Afrosiyob settlement, located along the northern edge of the modern city. Archaeological discoveries have revealed that as far back as the Late Paleolithic period, humans inhabited this region. Fragments of skulls and evidence of fire pits suggest that early communities organized their daily activities around hearths, vital for warmth, cooking, and communal gathering.

Founded in the 8th century BCE, Samarkand stands among the world’s oldest continuously inhabited cities, sharing its early timeline with places like Rome and Nanjing. During these formative centuries, as the city began to emerge, the ancient Greeks inaugurated their first Olympic Games, while the Greek alphabet was just starting to evolve from its Phoenician roots. Around the same era, the state of Sogdiana took shape in Central Asia, and Samarkand would eventually become its thriving capital—a place of significance mentioned in the sacred Zoroastrian text, the Avesta.

In classical antiquity, Samarkand was known to Greek and Roman writers as Maracanda. Chroniclers like Quintus Curtius Rufus, Arrian, and Strabo documented its importance. By 329 BCE, Alexander the Great had arrived, capturing a city already distinguished by its strong fortifications and sophisticated urban life. One of the notable military engagements of the era took place near the Politemetos River (the Zerafshan), where the Sogdian leader Spitamen achieved a rare victory against Alexander’s commanders, proving that local resistance could challenge the conqueror’s formidable legions.

Over the course of the following centuries, Samarkand’s political landscape shifted repeatedly. By the 4th and 5th centuries, the city came under the rule of various nomadic powers, including the Hionites and Kidarites. In the early 6th century, the Hephthalites, a formidable confederation ruling vast territories that included ancient Bactria, seized control. Through these transitions, Samarkand retained its importance as a hub of culture, commerce, and governance, positioned at the crossroads of civilizations and destined to become a legendary center on the Silk Road.

Ambassadors in Samarkand in the Afrasiab murals
Ambassadors in Samarkand in the Afrasiab murals

The Early Medieval Era

During the period from the mid-6th to the mid-7th centuries, Samarkand—then the heart of Sogdiana—found itself under the influence of the Turkic and Western Turkic Khaganates. This era was marked by dynamic cultural exchanges, political alliances, and shifts in power that shaped the city’s evolving identity.

One notable alliance occurred when the ruler of the Western Turkic Khaganate, Ton-Yabgu Khagan (618–630), forged a family bond with Samarkand’s leadership by marrying his daughter to the city’s ruler. Such unions reflected broader patterns of cooperation and blended heritage, as Turkic elites established close ties with the Sogdian aristocracy.

This era saw the growth of Turkic cultural and political influence across Sogdiana. Samarkand’s prominence as a Sogdian stronghold was complemented by neighboring principalities such as Penjikent, where, by the late 7th to early 8th century, a Turkic leader named Chakin Chur Bilge assumed power. Historical accounts suggest that certain ruling figures of Sogdiana, like the ikhshid Gurek, had Turkic roots, and archaeological findings—such as Turkic-style horse burials—indicate that Turkic beliefs and practices flourished in and around Samarkand.

Throughout the late 6th and 7th centuries, Turkic attire, especially distinctive caftans, gained popularity across Sogdian lands. Such influences are evident in the famous murals of Afrosiyob, where Turkic officials and emissaries are depicted, testifying to the deeply intertwined Turkic-Sogdian relationships. These interactions went beyond politics and fashion; they also impacted language, as Sogdian documents from that era include Turkic loanwords related to diplomacy, art, and craftsmanship.

Marital unions further cemented this cultural convergence. A recorded marriage contract dated to the early 8th century illustrates the growing frequency of inter-ethnic alliances: a Turkic groom named Uttegin took a Sogdian bride, Dugdgonche, symbolizing the merging of two vibrant cultural worlds.

By the close of this early medieval phase, Samarkand stood at the crossroads of Turkic and Sogdian influences. The city’s artifacts, artistic expressions, and linguistic legacy from that time reveal how deeply and naturally these two cultural spheres intermingled, paving the way for a uniquely blended identity that would shape the region’s future.

The Advent of Islam

In the early 8th century, Islamic influence reached Samarkand as Arab forces under the command of Qutayba ibn Muslim captured the city in 712 CE. Although this occupation solidified Arab authority, not all regional powers yielded without resistance. By the year’s end, Turkic contingents loyal to Bilge Khagan and Kül Tegin arrived in Sogdiana, attempting to support the local populace in pushing back against the new Arab rulers.

By the late 740s, dissatisfaction with Umayyad governance inspired a major movement within the Arab Caliphate. Under the leadership of the formidable general Abu Muslim, this revolt triumphed, and following its success, Abu Muslim assumed the governorship of Khorasan and Mawerannahr between 750 and 755 CE. His choice of Samarkand as his official residence was a testament to the city’s growing significance. He oversaw the construction of extensive defensive fortifications and a grand palace, both reflecting Samarkand’s emerging status as a strategic stronghold within the Islamic world.

Throughout the latter half of the 8th century and into the early 9th, Samarkand remained at the heart of political turmoil and evolving power structures. Between 776 and 783 CE, it became the central stage for the Mukanna uprising, a defining conflict that tested the resilience of the city and its rulers. Later, from 806 to 810 CE, another rebellion led by Rafi ibn Layth erupted within Samarkand’s walls. This time, it was the Samanids—destined to become a prominent regional dynasty—who helped quell the unrest. Their valuable assistance earned them the caliph’s favor, granting them authority over Mawerannahr.

These upheavals and realignments marked a pivotal chapter in Samarkand’s history. As the city adopted Islamic governance, weathered internal revolts, and integrated new political forces, it laid the foundations for a future as a vibrant cultural, religious, and economic hub within the broader Islamic world.

Turkic Officials in the Afrasiab murals, Samarkand, 650 CE
Turkic Officials in the Afrasiab murals, Samarkand, 650 CE

The Era of the Muslim Renaissance

By the year 875, the Samanid State, ruled by a Persian-speaking dynasty under the nominal authority of the Arab Caliphate, had risen to prominence. At its inception, Samarkand became the capital and retained that status until 892. During these formative years, figures like Nuh ibn Asad, Ahmad ibn Asad, and Nasr ibn Asad (a relative of Ismail Samani, who governed from Bukhara) oversaw the city’s administration. Although the capital later shifted to Bukhara, Samarkand continued to shine as one of the principal cities of a vast realm that spanned Mavarannahr and parts of Greater Khorasan. Alongside other influential centers such as Mashhad, Herat, Balkh, Gurganj, Merv, Nakhshab, Nishapur, Shahrisabz, and Shash, Samarkand played a crucial role in trade, governance, and cultural exchange.

During the Samanid period, the region experienced a cultural flourishing often described as a Muslim Renaissance. Persian literature, science, art, and Islamic scholarship all found fertile ground, as the Samanids encouraged the growth of knowledge, architecture, and poetry. Although administrative and military posts often went to individuals of Turkic origin, these diverse influences interwove to create a dynamic and cosmopolitan environment. Distinguished commanders and governors like Begtuzun managed Samarkand during the late 10th century, reflecting the city’s importance to the state’s stability and prosperity.

Writers of the era noted the sophistication, generosity, and aesthetic sensibilities of Samarkand’s inhabitants. The city’s design included a set of four main gates—facing east, west, north, and south—as well as a network of outer gates that provided access from surrounding regions. This urban structure facilitated commerce, diplomacy, and cultural exchange, ensuring that Samarkand remained an intellectual and economic hub.

Although none of the buildings from the Samanid era have survived—owing to the destruction wrought by later Mongol invasions—the legacy of this golden age endures in the city’s historical identity. Esteemed Islamic theologians and scholars, such as Abu Nazr Samarkandi, Abu al-Lays Samarkandi, and Abu Bakr Samarkandi, contributed to the city’s intellectual reputation. It was also in the Samanid era that the great Persian poet Ferdowsi crafted his influential works, while other notable poets, including Rudaki, Shahid Balkhi, and Abu Shakur Balkhi, spent meaningful periods of their lives in the city. Scholars debate the birthplace of the poet Dakiki—whether it was Tus, Balkh, or Samarkand—but Samarkand’s central position in the literary and philosophical scene of the time is undisputed. Even the renowned philosopher and polymath Al-Farabi visited the city, further cementing its status as a cultural and scholarly crossroads.

This era of prosperity, intellectual vigor, and refined artistry laid the foundation for Samarkand’s future reputation, helping to shape it into a celebrated center of Islamic civilization and Persian cultural heritage—a legacy that endures in the city’s history and global reputation today.

 

Shah-i Zinda: The Karakhanid-Era Treasure of Samarkand
Shah-i Zinda: The Karakhanid-Era Treasure of Samarkand
Map of the Karakhanid State within the borders of the year 1006
Map of the Karakhanid State within the borders of the year 1006

The Karakhanid Era

Following the collapse of the Samanid State in the late 10th century, the Turkic Karakhanid dynasty rose to power and established the Karakhanid State. Distinct from other Turkic-led dynasties of its time, the Karakhanids frequently displayed Turkic titles on their coinage, highlighting their strong cultural heritage.

After the Karakhanid realm split into two factions, Samarkand became part of the Western Karakhanid Khaganate and served as its capital from 1040 to 1212. Ibrahim Tamghach-Khan (1040–1068) is recognized as the founder of this western branch, and under his leadership, Samarkand experienced significant cultural and educational development. He established the first madrasa financed by state funds and founded a public hospital (bimarestan) equipped with an outpatient clinic, demonstrating a notable level of medical care for the era.

Another Karakhanid figure, Ibrahim Buritakin, also chose Samarkand as his capital, ushering in an economic and cultural revival. Both Ibrahim Tamghach-Khan and Ibrahim Buritakin took a firm stand against corruption and crime, enforcing strict controls on market prices to stabilize and strengthen the region. Their efforts were continued by Tamghach-Khan’s son, Shams al-Mulk (1068–1080), followed by Khizr-Khan (1080–1087).

Under Karakhanid rule, a number of grand architectural projects arose in Samarkand and Bukhara. While Bukhara still retains monuments from that period—such as the iconic Kalyan Minaret—Samarkand preserves only the minaret at the Shah-i-Zinda complex, as many other structures were later destroyed during the Mongol invasions. Despite these losses, the Karakhanid era remains a significant chapter in the city’s rich history, blending Turkic, Islamic, and Persian influences into a unique cultural tapestry.

The Palace of Ibrahim Hussein: A Karakhanid Masterpiece in Samarkand

Among the most illustrious achievements of the Karakhanid Dynasty in Samarkand was the splendid palace of Ibrahim Hussein (1178–1202). Standing within the citadel walls, this grand structure was reportedly adorned with extensive murals illustrating royal life, hunting scenes, and other vivid imagery. Fragments of these monumental paintings discovered during excavations reveal a Turkic archer dressed in a bright yellow caftan holding a bow, accompanied by horses, hunting dogs, birds, and mythical female figures, evoking the era’s rich cultural tapestry.

Earlier, in 1040, a madrasa erected by Ibrahim ibn Nasr Toghach-Khan had already symbolized the Karakhanids’ commitment to learning and architectural innovation. Persian was one of the official languages of the Western Karakhanid Khaganate, fostering a dynamic cultural and scholarly environment. During this period, Omar Khayyam—invited from Nishapur to the court of Karakhanid ruler Shams al-Mulk—studied in Samarkand’s madrasas, alongside those of Balkh and Bukhara. It was here that he completed his landmark work on algebra, further elevating the city’s reputation as a center of scientific and intellectual pursuits.

Samarkand under the Karakhanids also became home to prominent thinkers and theologians. Burhan al-Din al-Marginani (1123–1197), a renowned philosopher, jurist, and Islamic scholar, enriched the city’s intellectual heritage. Meanwhile, the historian Majid al-Din as-Surhakati composed a detailed chronicle of Karakhanid history, underscoring Samarkand’s status as a hub for historical writing and literary production.

Despite its significance, the palace of Ibrahim Hussein ultimately met a tragic end when it was destroyed during the Karakhanids’ uprising against the Khwarezmshah Muhammad. Although few Karakhanid-era monuments remain in Samarkand today, the legacy of this palace and its once-resplendent frescoes provides a fascinating glimpse into the city’s vibrant artistic and cultural life, reminding us of a time when Samarkand stood at the pinnacle of architectural grandeur and scholarly achievement.

 

Khwarezmian Empire 1190-1220
Khwarezmian Empire 1190-1220

Samarkand Under the Khwarazmshahs

Following the final collapse of the Karakhanid realm, Samarkand came under the authority of Khwarezm, often referred to by historians as the Khwarazmshah State. From its inception in 1097 until 1220, this expanding empire centered its governance in Gurganj. Over time, it extended its boundaries southward and eastward, ultimately covering all of Mawarannahr, Khorasan, and much of modern-day Iran.

In 1212, the Khwarazmshah ‘Ala al-Din Muhammad II suppressed a Karakhanid uprising led by ‘Uthman ibn Ibrahim in Samarkand, thereby asserting complete control over the city. Yet by 1221, the entire Khwarazmshah State fell to the formidable Mongol invasion spearheaded by Genghis Khan, signaling a dramatic shift in regional power.

During the Khwarazmshah era, Samarkand remained one of the most vital urban centers in both the state and the broader Muslim world. A number of new structures rose within the city, while many buildings from the Karakhanid period and earlier times continued to stand—showcasing Samarkand’s enduring significance and resilience in the face of constant political change.

 

The ruins of Afrasiab — the ancient Samarkand destroyed by Genghis Khan.
The ruins of Afrasiab — the ancient Samarkand destroyed by Genghis Khan.

The Mongol Invasion Led by Genghis Khan

In the waning years of the Khwarazmshah State, the expanding Mongol Empire—led by Genghis Khan—began a sweeping campaign westward. Central Asia lay directly in its path, and by 1220, the Mongols had turned their attention to Samarkand, one of the region’s most prominent cities. A three-day siege ensued, after which the Mongols demanded that the entire populace—men, women, and children—exit the safety of the city walls.

According to historical accounts, the result was widespread devastation: many of Samarkand’s inhabitants were killed, enslaved, or subjected to brutal violence, while much of the city’s infrastructure was set ablaze. Nearly all the architectural marvels from the Samanid, Karakhanid, and Khwarazmshah eras were reduced to ruins, forever altering Samarkand’s urban landscape.

By 1223, the Mongols controlled the entire eastern expanse of the former Khwarazmshah realm. Even so, local resistance persisted. In 1365, the city witnessed the Sarbadar uprising, led by figures such as Maulana-zade, Abu Bakr Kelevi, and Khurdak Bukhari—an event that underscored Samarkand’s enduring spirit of defiance despite the severe toll inflicted by the Mongol conquest.

 

Timur at a feast in Samarkand.
Timur at a feast in Samarkand.

The Timurid Era

The Rukhabad Mausoleum in Samarkand.
The Rukhabad Mausoleum in Samarkand.

When Timur (also known in the West as Tamerlane) rose to power in the late 14th century, he established Samarkand as the capital of his vast empire. Under his rule and that of the Timurid dynasty (1370–1499), the city entered a golden age of architecture, culture, and commerce, transforming into a true jewel of Central Asia.

A Flourishing Capital
Timur aimed to make Samarkand the “capital of the world,” devoting immense resources to its expansion and splendor. He brought skilled artisans, craftsmen, and merchants from every region he conquered, fueling an unprecedented boom in trade and industry. The city’s strategic position on key caravan routes also helped it become a bustling commercial center, where goods from China, India, and beyond were sold in vibrant bazaars.

Architectural Grandeur
Many of Samarkand’s present-day architectural wonders date from this era. Majestic palaces, imposing mosques, ornate madrasas (Islamic schools), and mausoleums were constructed in grand proportions to honor both the empire and its founder. Timur commissioned monumental buildings using innovative designs and opulent decorative techniques, which blended Persian, Turkic, and local influences. These structures not only showcased the dynasty’s political power but also elevated Samarkand’s reputation across the Islamic world.

One of Timur’s primary architectural projects included rebuilding the city’s fortifications, such as the Shahristan walls and the fortress gates. He constructed administrative complexes like Kuksaray and Buston-Saray in the heart of Samarkand, housing the royal treasury, workshops, and living quarters. Lavish palaces emerged amid newly landscaped gardens, complete with fountains and pavilions, where city dwellers of all social classes could gather and enjoy leisure time.

Centers of Learning and Faith
A deeply committed patron of Islamic culture, Timur sponsored the construction of religious and educational institutions. In the Shahi-Zinda necropolis, he ordered tombs for his relatives, along with mosques, dervish lodges, and other pious foundations. Further key projects included Rukhabad (the burial site of Burhan al-Din Sagharji), the Khuṭbi Chahardahum mausoleum (resting place of Sheikh Khwaja Nur al-Din Basir), and the Gur-e Amir complex—the dynastic mausoleum for Timur and his descendants.

Science and the arts thrived under Timurid patronage. Samarkand became home to scholars of jurisprudence, medicine, astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, music, and literature. These luminaries produced influential works that shaped intellectual thought far beyond Central Asia. Renowned theologians, historians, and poets found a supportive environment at court, advancing fields such as history, poetry, theology, and philosophy.

Economic Prosperity and Cultural Exchange

The Gur-Emir Mausoleum, where Timur and his descendants are buried.
The Gur-Emir Mausoleum, where Timur and his descendants are buried.

Timur’s empire was vast, and he sought to elevate Samarkand by forcibly relocating talented individuals from conquered lands. Craftsmen from Damascus, bowmakers and glassworkers from other regions, as well as stone masons, goldsmiths, and skilled laborers from Anatolia and elsewhere, all contributed to the thriving crafts sector. As a result, Samarkand became renowned for producing and trading a wide variety of goods, from textiles to ceramics.

According to accounts from contemporary travelers, the city was encircled by fertile vineyards and orchards, with grand residences extending outward as suburbs. Within these gardens lay sumptuous pavilions and palaces built for Timur, reinforcing Samarkand’s status as an imperial showpiece.

Bibi-Khanym Mosque and Madrasa
Between 1399 and 1404, construction of a grand congregational mosque and a madrasa across from it was completed. Later known as Bibi-Khanym, the mosque’s name—translating to “Grand Lady” in some traditions—commemorates either Timur’s wife or another noblewoman. This monumental complex embodied Timur’s architectural ambitions, featuring immense gateways, towering minarets, and intricate tilework.

The Bibi-Khanym Mosque.
The Bibi-Khanym Mosque.

Timur’s Vision of Greatness
Above all, Timur’s overarching goal was to amplify Samarkand’s prestige. He renamed surrounding villages after famous cities of the East—Baghdad, Shiraz, Damascus, and Misr—to give the impression that Samarkand had eclipsed them all in prominence. By the time of his death, the city was a beacon of power and culture, having attracted talented minds and artisans from across the Islamic world and beyond.

Although many Timurid-era structures have been lost to time, those that survive stand as enduring witnesses to Timur’s ambition and patronage. Samarkand’s legacy as a center of architectural innovation, cultural vibrancy, and intellectual achievement continues to captivate visitors and scholars alike, reflecting the towering vision of a ruler who dreamed of making his capital the envy of empires.

The Ulugh Beg Madrasah on Registan Square in Samarkand.
The Ulugh Beg Madrasah on Registan Square in Samarkand.

 

The Shah-i-Zinda Mausoleums.
The Shah-i-Zinda Mausoleums.

The Timurid Legacy After Timur

Following Timur’s passing, power briefly fell into the hands of his grandson Khalil Sultan (1405–1409). His imprudent governance rapidly depleted the state treasury, leading to political instability. In 1409, Khalil Sultan was deposed, and Samarkand came under the control of Shahrukh, Timur’s younger son. Shahrukh appointed his own son, Mirzo Ulugh Beg, as governor of Mawarannahr, positioning Samarkand for a new era of cultural and scientific achievement.

The Ulugh Beg Observatory in Samarkand.
The Ulugh Beg Observatory in Samarkand.

Ulugh Beg and Samarkand as a Global Center of Learning

The Ishrat-Khona Mausoleum.
The Ishrat-Khona Mausoleum.

Under the rule of Ulugh Beg, Samarkand experienced a remarkable intellectual renaissance. Determined to turn the city into a leading hub of scholarship, he commissioned the construction of the Ulugh Beg Madrasa (1417–1420) on Registan Square, inviting renowned mathematicians, astronomers, and scholars from across the Islamic world. The portal of the madrasa still bears an inscription celebrating Ulugh Beg as the “founder of this edifice of knowledge—great sultan, son of a sultan, provider of peace and faith.”

Ulugh Beg’s passion for astronomy culminated in the establishment of the Ulugh Beg Observatory in 1428. Its colossal wall quadrant was unprecedented in size and precision, enabling extensive observations that led to the creation of the Gurgan Zij star catalog by 1437. Detailing 1,018 stars, this masterpiece of medieval astronomy—often known as “Zij-i Jadid-i Gurgani” or “The New Gurgan Astronomical Tables”—was later translated into Latin. Alongside works by Claudius Ptolemy and Alfonso X of Castile, it became a cornerstone of astronomical study in European observatories.

Beyond astronomy, Samarkand thrived in various fields of science and the arts. The city hosted eminent thinkers such as Qazi-Zade Rumi, al-Kashi, and al-Kushchi, while historians like Hafizi Abru chronicled regional history. Leading physicians, poets, and theologians found ample support under Ulugh Beg, who also sponsored Turkish-language poets such as Sakkaki. Notable personalities like Emir Arslan-Khoja Tarkhan even patronized new editions of literary works, contributing to a vibrant scholarly climate.

Samarkand Under Sultan Abu Sa’id (1451–1469)

After Ulugh Beg, the Timurid ruler Sultan Abu Sa’id oversaw the construction of additional architectural landmarks in Samarkand. Among them were the Aksaray Mausoleum and the Ishratkhana Mausoleum, commissioned by his wife. During this period, the illustrious Persian-Tajik poet Abd al-Rahman Jami studied at the Ulugh Beg Madrasa, while the celebrated Turkic poet Alisher Navoi (1441–1501) resided in Samarkand for three years. In his literary collection, Navoi referenced prominent scholars and poets from the city, attesting to its status as a thriving artistic and intellectual center.

The Influence of Khoja Ahrar and the Naqshbandi Order

In the latter half of the 15th century, the spiritual leader of the Naqshbandi order, Khoja Ubaydullah Ahrar (1404–1489), played a decisive role in Samarkand’s political and social life. Viewing advocacy for the poor as a key religious duty, Khoja Ahrar successfully campaigned for the abolition of burdensome taxes that dated back to Mongol rule. He also encouraged more lenient legal measures within the Timurid administrative system, easing the hardships faced by ordinary laborers and promoting internal stability. Under his guidance, factional conflicts diminished, granting local artisans and farmers a respite from constant warfare and enabling them to cultivate their trades and livelihoods.

A Lasting Cultural and Intellectual Beacon

From Ulugh Beg’s groundbreaking contributions to astronomy to Khoja Ahrar’s reforms that benefited the city’s commoners, Samarkand during the Timurid era stood at the intersection of innovation, scholarship, and compassion. The architectural marvels and scientific works of this period would resonate far beyond Central Asia, ensuring that Samarkand’s legacy as a beacon of culture and knowledge would be celebrated for centuries to come.

Late Medieval Period: The Rivalry for Samarkand and the Rise of Babur

Babur
Babur

At the dawn of 1496, following the death of Mahmud Mirza, his son Baisunkar Mirza ascended the throne in Samarkand. Not long after, a dispute arose over the succession, pitting Baisunkar Mirza against his brother Sultan Ali Mirza. Sensing an opportunity amid this internal strife, the young prince and future conqueror, Babur—supported by Sultan Ali Mirza and another brother, Sultan Masud Mirza, who ruled Bukhara—marched on Samarkand and laid siege to the city. With winter fast approaching, however, the harsh conditions forced Babur and his allies to lift the siege and withdraw.

By May 1497, Babur returned with renewed determination, again besieging Samarkand. This siege lasted for more than seven months and eventually compelled Baisunkar Mirza to flee, opening the door for Babur to assume authority over the fabled city.

Babur’s Rule in Samarkand

Zahir al-Din Muhammad Babur (1483–1530), a Timurid prince born in Andijan and a direct descendant of Timur, became one of Samarkand’s most intriguing rulers. Renowned as a writer, poet, and historian, Babur chronicled his experiences in the “Baburnama,” providing invaluable insights into late 15th- and early 16th-century Samarkand—its architecture, local industries, and cultural life.

Despite his early success, Babur’s grip on Samarkand was tenuous. In 1504, he was driven out of the city by Shaybani Khan. Yet in October 1511, he briefly regained control. During his final seven-month rule, coins minted under his authority featured a design of a waterfowl in flight—likely a symbolic call for hope and prosperity during turbulent times.

In his memoirs, Babur praised Samarkand as the principal city of Mawarannahr (Transoxiana), considered so secure that it was nicknamed “The City Guarded by God.” He invoked traditions that traced the city’s founding to Alexander the Great and noted its significance as a capital during Timur’s reign. Babur remarked on Samarkand’s reputation for devout inhabitants, its production of premium paper, and its famous crimson velvet exported across distant lands.

A Shifting Tapestry of Power

Between the clashes among Timurid princes and the external threat posed by rising powers like the Shaybanids, Samarkand underwent frequent transfers of authority toward the end of the 15th century. These upheavals led to economic disruptions but also spurred new cultural and architectural endeavors—often driven by successive rulers striving to leave their mark on the city’s rich heritage.

Ultimately, Babur’s short-lived rule in Samarkand underscored the city’s allure and strategic importance, even as shifting political winds pushed him to seek fortunes elsewhere. His accounts remain a vital historical source that offers a vivid glimpse into Samarkand’s late medieval life, capturing both the grandeur of its past and the uncertainty of its future.

 

A 1507 miniature by Kamaleddin Behzad depicting Shaybani Khan.
A 1507 miniature by Kamaleddin Behzad depicting Shaybani Khan.
The Shaybanid Dakhma in the northeastern part of the Registan ensemble.
The Shaybanid Dakhma in the northeastern part of the Registan ensemble.

The Shaybanid Era in Samarkand

By the early 16th century, Samarkand had entered a new phase of its history under the Uzbek Shaybanid dynasty. In 1501, Muhammad Shaybani Khan seized the city, incorporating it into what is often referred to as the Bukhara Khanate. Although Samarkand had played a central role under the Timurids, its status endured into this new era when Shaybani Khan chose it as his capital and ascended the throne there.

The Founding of a New Capital

Determined to establish Samarkand as both a political and cultural hub, Shaybani Khan ordered the construction of a large madrasa. He himself participated in scholarly and religious debates within its precincts. This institution was praised by contemporaries for its grandeur, adorned with high arches, spacious halls, and intricate decorative elements. Shaybani Khan gathered poets and scholars at his court, resulting in the creation of works dedicated to his life and leadership.

Intellectual and Literary Achievements

Political shifts across the region triggered migration into Mawarannahr, including many prominent scholars seeking refuge. Notable figures such as historians, poets, and thinkers arrived in Samarkand, invigorating its cultural scene. Shaybani Khan, writing under the pen name “Shibani,” produced a collection of poetry in the Central Asian Turkic literary language. He also authored treatises on philosophical and religious themes, reflecting a deep engagement with contemporary theological and intellectual discourse.

Kuchkunchi Khan’s Contributions

After Shaybani Khan’s passing, his uncle Kuchkunchi Khan continued major construction and renovation efforts within Samarkand. The city’s existing madrasas were repaired and expanded, while new architectural complexes were erected to accommodate the influx of skilled artisans and cultural figures from neighboring regions. A mausoleum complex known as Kuk-Gumbaz—built south of Registan Square—became the resting place for the khan’s descendants, symbolizing the enduring link between the city and the ruling dynasty.

Shifting the Capital to Bukhara

In 1533, Ubaydullah Khan moved the state’s capital to Bukhara, leaving Samarkand as the second most significant city in the khanate. Nonetheless, Samarkand retained a pivotal role: each new khan of Bukhara was ceremonially crowned at the Kuk-Saray palace in Samarkand, which housed the historic “Kuktash,” or Blue Stone Throne, said to date from the time of Amir Timur.

Cultural and Linguistic Flourishing

The era’s rulers continued to patronize learning and the arts. Under Kuchkunchi Khan, notable works of history were translated into the old Uzbek literary language, reflecting an ongoing interest in making scholarship accessible. Abdalatif Khan, another member of the dynasty, was an avid poet who wrote under the pseudonym “Khush,” further fostering Samarkand’s reputation as a vibrant literary center. Official documentation now appeared in both Persian and Uzbek, signaling the city’s evolving linguistic and cultural identity.

Lasting Legacy

Though the political gravity ultimately shifted to Bukhara, Samarkand remained a beacon of intellectual life, poetry, and scholarship during the Shaybanid era. The city’s madrasa complexes, courts of learned men, and patronage of the arts and sciences continued Timur’s legacy in new forms. Even as dynasties changed and capitals relocated, Samarkand’s historical prestige as a seat of power, culture, and creativity persisted—a testament to its enduring significance in Central Asia.

 

The Sher-Dor Madrasah on Registan Square, built between 1619 and 1636.
The Sher-Dor Madrasah on Registan Square, built between 1619 and 1636.
The Tillya-Kari Madrasah on Registan Square, built between 1646 and 1660.
The Tillya-Kari Madrasah on Registan Square, built between 1646 and 1660.

The Ashtarkhanid Era in Samarkand

With Samarkand still part of the Bukhara Khanate, the city experienced a new phase of cultural and architectural revival under the Ashtarkhanid (Janid) dynasty, which ruled from 1599 to 1756. During this period, Samarkand once again attracted builders, artisans, scholars, and poets from across Central Asia and beyond, ushering in an era of renewed urban development and artistic achievement.

A Period of Reforms and Construction

In 1602, Baki Muhammad Khan, an Ashtarkhanid ruler who chose Samarkand as his residence, defended the Bukhara Khanate’s independence by defeating Safavid forces near Balkh. Although his tenure was relatively brief, Baki Muhammad Khan introduced administrative, tax, and military reforms that supported further growth. It was under the Ashtarkhanids that many of the surviving monuments of Samarkand were built or restored, leaving a lasting imprint on the city’s landscape.

The Reign of Imam Quli Khan

One of the most notable Ashtarkhanid rulers, Imam Quli Khan (1611–1642), oversaw the construction of major landmarks in Samarkand, including the Abd-i Birun complex. This era witnessed the copying and illustration of important manuscripts such as the famed “Zafar-Name,” reflecting the dynasty’s patronage of scholarship and the arts.

Yalangtush Bahadur and Nadir Muhammad Divanbegi

Between 1612 and 1656, Samarkand was governed by influential figures like Yalangtush Bahadur and Nadir Muhammad Divanbegi. Under their leadership, three iconic structures transformed Registan Square into the city’s defining architectural ensemble:

  1. Sherdor Madrasa (1619–1636) – Featuring bold tiger motifs on its portal, this madrasa combined traditional Timurid aesthetics with new decorative ideas.
  2. Tillya-Kari Madrasa (1646–1660) – Serving as both a madrasa and a grand mosque, Tillya-Kari dazzled visitors with its lavish gilded interior, thus earning the name “gold-covered.”
  3. Existing Ulugh Beg Madrasa (built earlier, 1417–1420) – Already a landmark from the Timurid era, it was carefully preserved and integrated into the new design of Registan.

Together, these structures became the centerpiece of Samarkand’s rejuvenated cultural and spiritual life, attracting scholars, travelers, and merchants alike.

Cultural Flourishing and Notable Personalities

The city’s reputation as a center for literature, theology, and mysticism continued to thrive. One celebrated visitor was Bobo Rahim Mashrab (1657–1711), a classic figure in Uzbek literature and a Sufi dervish associated with the Naqshbandi order. His presence underscored Samarkand’s status as a crossroads for spiritual and intellectual currents.

The Temporary Occupation by Nadir Shah

In 1740, the armies of the Persian ruler Nadir Shah entered Samarkand during the last phase of his Central Asian campaign. According to legend, his troops carried off Amir Timur’s jade cenotaph from Gur-e Amir, only to return it after Nadir Shah reportedly experienced a series of disastrous omens and dreams involving Timur’s disturbed spirit. These events, combined with internal strife and economic hardship, impeded Samarkand’s recovery for several decades. Some accounts even suggest that by 1735, the city was so depopulated that only a lone Sufi lived among its ruins for seven years.

Despite these setbacks, the Ashtarkhanid period endowed Samarkand with monumental art and architecture—most famously at Registan Square—that continue to define the city’s enduring splendor. Even through political upheaval and changing fortunes, Samarkand’s stature as a storied center of culture and learning persisted, leaving a rich legacy that resonates to this day.

 

The Hazrat Khizr Mosque (restored in 1854).
The Hazrat Khizr Mosque (restored in 1854).
The Chorsu Trading Dome, built in 1785.
The Chorsu Trading Dome, built in 1785.

Samarkand Under the Uzbek Manghit Dynasty

With the rise of the Uzbek Manghit (Mangkyt) dynasty, Samarkand began to recover from a prolonged period of stagnation. Muhammad Rahimbi (1756–1758), founder of this new ruling house, was renowned for his strong character and military prowess. Although his rule was brief, he laid the groundwork for future efforts to restore Samarkand to its former prominence.

Early Revival Efforts

The most significant strides came under Emir Shahmurad (1785–1800), who invested heavily in revitalizing the city’s commercial infrastructure. Between 1784 and 1785, a large trading dome known as Chorsu was erected to foster trade and economic exchange. Around the same time, in an effort to boost local silk production, many Shia Iranians from Merv were relocated to Samarkand. Shahmurad also conducted campaigns in areas such as Ura-Tyube, Khujand, Khavas, Zaamin, and Yam, resettling a portion of their populations in Samarkand. This influx of new residents led to the creation of 24 distinct neighborhoods (guzars), each with its own mosque.

The Emergence of a Jewish Quarter

Under Emir Nasrullah, another wave of demographic change took place. A new district—known as Mahallayi-Shark or Mahallayi-Yahudiyon—was officially designated for Bukharan Jews. The community organized under a kalontar (leader), who helped manage local affairs. This quarter boasted a bathhouse, synagogue, tea house, small marketplace, and various craft workshops for activities such as dyeing, shoemaking, and weaving. By the mid-19th century, this Jewish neighborhood had gained legal recognition, reflecting the emir’s policy of offering land ownership and autonomy to different communities.

Cultural and Educational Developments

During the 1840s, the renowned Tatar educator Shihab al-Din Marjani studied in Samarkand’s Sher-Dor Madrasa, symbolizing the city’s continuing appeal to scholars from across the region. Alongside ongoing efforts to rebuild and reestablish Samarkand’s commercial importance, this influx of diverse peoples and faiths helped restore a measure of the city’s historic vibrancy.

Although many challenges remained, the Manghit era ultimately marked a period of renewed vitality for Samarkand, laying the foundations for the transformations and modernizations that would follow in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

 

The Women's Gymnasium building in Samarkand, 1880.
The Women’s Gymnasium building in Samarkand, 1880.
The coat of arms of Samarkand during the Russian Empire.
The coat of arms of Samarkand during the Russian Empire.

Samarkand Under the Russian Empire

Samarkand’s entry into the Russian Empire in 1868 brought a significant transformation to this ancient Silk Road city. On May 2 of that year, Russian forces under General Konstantin Petrovich Kaufman seized control of Samarkand, incorporating it into the expanding territories of the empire. Initially serving as the center of the Zeravshan District, the city was later designated the capital of the Samarkand Region in 1887.

The Early Years of Russian Rule

Shortly after the conquest, Russian troops stationed in Samarkand—led by Major General Baron Friedrich von Stempel—faced local resistance, as disaffected residents attempted to expel imperial forces. Despite these tensions, the Russians solidified their hold on the city, and new administrative and military structures emerged in tandem with the old, fostering a distinct blend of cultural influences.

The Emergence of a “New City”

Russian authorities divided Samarkand into two distinct areas: the indigenous (or “native”) quarter, inhabited mostly by the local population, and a European-style district. In the late 19th century, the latter saw the construction of new roads, civic buildings, and churches, reflecting the aesthetic preferences of the empire. Businesses such as hotels, restaurants, and European-influenced shops multiplied, while amenities like postal services and telegraph lines underscored the modernization agenda pursued by imperial officials.

Railroads and Economic Development

In 1888, the Trans-Caspian Railway reached the city’s station, later extending eastward under the name Samarkand-Andijan Railway. Eventually, the consolidation of regional lines gave rise to the Central Asian Railway system. This transportation network invigorated trade and mobility, enabling the rapid flow of people and goods between Samarkand and other urban centers across the empire. Simultaneously, banks, pharmacies, and commercial enterprises sprang up in the new district, mirroring the infrastructure of other Russian provincial capitals.

A Diverse Population

Mahmud Khoja Behbudi.
Mahmud Khoja Behbudi.

By 1892, the Russian quarter had drawn thousands of new residents, including Orthodox Christians, Sunni Muslims, Jews, Catholics, Protestants, and members of the Armenian Apostolic Church. This multicultural mosaic shaped Samarkand’s evolving identity under Russian rule, reflected in the range of religious institutions built for the city’s newcomers.

Educational and Cultural Shifts

While medical services and formal education expanded slowly, increasing numbers of schools, libraries, and cultural venues began to appear in the early 20th century. Notably, the jadid (reformist) movement gained a foothold in Samarkand, supported by visionary intellectuals like Hoji Muin Shukrullaev and Mahmud Khoja Behbudi. They sought to modernize Islamic education, incorporate contemporary ideas, and elevate Uzbek and Tajik literary and journalistic works.

Behbudi, in particular, left a lasting imprint on Samarkand’s cultural life. His drama Padar Kush (“The Parricide”), published in 1911, became a milestone of reformist literature. Two years later, in 1913, he launched Samarkand, a newspaper in Uzbek and Tajik, reflecting the city’s linguistic diversity. His election in 1917 to Russia’s Constituent Assembly—representing Samarkand Province—highlighted the region’s importance within broader political and social currents.

A Continuing Legacy

The Russian Empire’s rule introduced modernizing elements that reshaped Samarkand’s physical and social landscapes, often challenging local traditions while also fostering new economic opportunities. This chapter in the city’s history remains evident in the architectural contrasts between its older sections and the “European” district, as well as in the enduring cultural contributions of local reformers who used literary and journalistic platforms to champion progressive ideas.

Samarkand as the Capital of Soviet Uzbekistan (1925–1930)

Following the October Revolution, Samarkand became part of the Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. Between 1925 and 1930, it briefly served as the capital of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic, with Faizulla Khodjaev heading the government. During this period, German architects designed several key public buildings, including a Republican hospital and the main university complex. Educators from across the Soviet Union arrived in Samarkand through a national competition to teach at what became a major new center for higher learning in Central Asia.

In 1927, the city established the Uzbek Pedagogical Institute—recognized as the first secular higher educational institution in Uzbekistan. By 1930, it was renamed the Uzbek State Pedagogical Academy, in 1933 it became the Uzbek State University, and in 1961 it was re-designated Samarkand State University, bearing the name of the renowned medieval Central Asian poet, philosopher, and statesman Alisher Navo’i. Around this time, Samarkand also founded several other institutions of higher education that served the entire region, including the Samarkand State Medical Institute, the Samarkand Cooperative Institute, the Samarkand State Architectural and Civil Engineering Institute, and the Samarkand Agricultural Institute.

In 1930, the capital of Soviet Uzbekistan moved from Samarkand to Tashkent. Despite losing its status as the nation’s administrative center, Samarkand remained the capital of its own region.

Samarkand During World War II

From October 1941 to 1944, the city hosted the evacuated Artillery Academy from Moscow, along with numerous industries that had been relocated from war-torn regions. This influx of educational institutions and factories contributed significantly to Samarkand’s industrial and academic standing.

Development from 1946 to 1991

Throughout the Soviet era, Samarkand emerged as a prominent tourist destination. Most international visitors arrived from countries within the Warsaw Pact, as well as from India. During these years, new factories and enterprises sprang up, fueling the city’s role as a major economic hub in Central Asia.

In 1967, a memorial museum dedicated to the writer Sadriddin Aini opened, following a governmental decree. The project brought together officials from both Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, underscoring Samarkand’s cultural significance. In 1970, the city celebrated its 2,500th anniversary under the patronage of the Uzbek Academy of Sciences and the support of prominent leaders. Events included the unveiling of a statue of Mirzo Ulugh Beg, the establishment of a Museum of Samarkand History, and the publication of a two-volume history of the city.

Finally, in 1991, Samarkand pioneered the creation of Uzbekistan’s first non-state television channel, initiated by local resident Firdavs Abdukhalikov and his colleagues. This innovation reflected the city’s ongoing tradition of embracing both progress and cultural heritage.

 

The burial site of Islam Karimov in Samarkand.
The burial site of Islam Karimov in Samarkand.

Samarkand in Independent Uzbekistan (Since 1991)

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Samarkand became the administrative center of the Samarkand Region in the newly independent Republic of Uzbekistan. In the early years of independence, the city’s broadcast media, especially Samarkand Television, gained international recognition, conducting live interviews with heads of state, senators, and prominent foreign journalists. Television crews traveled across Uzbekistan and abroad, producing documentaries on destinations such as Russia, France, the United States, Syria, Pakistan, and India. Notably, creative teams developed a series of documentaries celebrating key historical figures like Amir Timur and Mirzo Ulugh Beg.

In 1994, a presidential decree led to the establishment of Samarkand State Institute of Foreign Languages, now recognized as one of Central Asia’s major language-learning institutions. Its graduates include highly skilled philologists, translators, and interpreters for tourism and education. Two years later, in 1996, a monument to Amir Timur was unveiled in honor of the 660th anniversary of his birth. Subsequent projects focused on gathering and studying Timurid manuscripts, further showcasing Samarkand’s commitment to preserving its cultural heritage.

The Al-Maturidi Mausoleum, 2000.
The Al-Maturidi Mausoleum, 2000.

Between 1997 and 1998, a memorial complex honoring Imam al-Bukhari was constructed in the village of Hartang in Samarkand Region, marking the 1225th lunar anniversary of the scholar’s birth. A prominent spiritual site in the Islamic world, Imam al-Bukhari’s resting place continues to attract pilgrims and visitors. In 2000, Uzbekistan commemorated the 1130th anniversary of Imam Abu Mansur al-Maturidi’s birth with an international conference, publication of his works, and the opening of a memorial complex in Samarkand.

Over the past three decades, several notable monuments have been erected in Samarkand, celebrating cultural icons such as the Persian-Tajik poet Abu Abdullah Rudaki, the poet Alisher Navoi, the ruler and military leader Amir Timur, and the scholar-king Mirzo Ulugh Beg. When Uzbekistan’s first president, Islam Karimov, passed away, he was interred in his birthplace of Samarkand. A mausoleum near the Hazrat Khizr Mosque and a monument unveiled in 2017 now stand as tributes to his legacy. In August 2022, the city inaugurated a second monument dedicated to Rudaki, underscoring Samarkand’s ongoing devotion to honoring its historical and cultural luminaries.

Today, Samarkand remains a beacon of Uzbekistan’s rich past and forward-looking aspirations. Its continued investment in education, culture, and the commemoration of world-renowned scholars and leaders cements its reputation as one of Central Asia’s most vibrant and historically significant cities.

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